The Economic development of Russia 1929-1945 Essay

The Economic development of Russia 1929-1945 - Essay Example 1929-1945 was possibly the greatest transformative period of time in Soviet history; partly due to the occurrence of the Second World War lasting from 1939-1945 and partly due to its leadership. During this period, Stalin combined his hold on power and was allowed to rule with liberty, establishing his â€Å"revolution from above† on the Soviet people1. His rule extended from 1922-1952 and was therefore responsible for majority of the economic transformation at the time. He substituted the New Economic Policy (NEP) instituted by his predecessor with a highly centralised planned (command) economy. This launched a period of collectivization and industrialization that caused rapid transformation of the USSR into an industrial power from an agrarian society. The initial disruption in agriculture unsettled food production and contributed to the disastrous Soviet famine of 1932–1933, which in Ukraine was known as the Holodomor2. Afterwards, in a period that continued from 193 6 to 1939, Stalin established a movement against suspected enemies within his administration - the Great Purge – during which hundreds of thousands were executed. In August 1939, a non-aggression pact was signed by Stalin and Nazi Germany that distributed their power and territory within Eastern Europe, causing the invasion of Poland later in September of that year. Germany later dishonoured the agreement and in June 1941 initiated a substantial invasion of the Soviet Union. In spite of numerous territorial and human losses, Soviet forces succeeded in halting the Nazi incursion following the decisive Battles of Stalingrad and Moscow3. After overwhelming the Germans on the Eastern Front, Berlin was captured in May 1945 by the Red Army, effectively ending the Second World War for the Allies in Europe. Consequently the Soviet Union arose as one of two acknowledged world super-powers, the United States being the other4. This aim of this paper is to analyse the events that occurred

Hydrogen Fuel Cells The Fuel Of The Future Environmental Sciences Essay

Hydrogen Fuel Cells The Fuel Of The Future Environmental Sciences Essay Ever since the beginning of the human era, there has been an ever growing necessity for energy. Energy is the most basic aspect of human development. From lighting and communication to cooking and transport, quick and easy access to energy makes the modern way of life possible. Currently, planet earth is addicted to inefficient, polluting, and non-renewable sources of energy such as coal and oil. These energy sources allow for the unequal distribution of the benefits of energy. Some communities may receive the wealth and cheap energy that coal and oil bring, while others receive only polluted streams, acid rain, and deadly toxins. Fortunately, there is an answer to this problem: hydrogen fuel cells. Because hydrogen fuel cells are an emission-free fuel source, are more efficient than current fossil fuel sources, and have the possibility to create a diversified energy economy, more investments need to be made in this budding technology. Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe and has been present since the beginning of time. The earths own life-giving star, its sun, is composed almost entirely of this element (Bose and Malbrunot 22). As the smallest element in the universe, hydrogen consists as a diatomic, gaseous molecule with a single proton and a single electron. Hydrogen does not exist in its pure form on the planet, but it is present as a compound in molecules like water, glucose, natural gas, and even oil (Busby). Because it is found in such a variety of sources, hydrogen is the perfect power source for fuel cells. What exactly are hydrogen fuel cells and why will they be the fuel of the future? Hydrogen fuel cells are a mechanical device that convert the electrochemical energy found in a fuel source, like hydrogen, into electrical energy, with the only byproducts being heat and water (Hoffmann 6). In all fuel cells there are two electrodes, an anode and a cathode, with an electrolyte, a membrane capable of moving ions, in between the two (Sorenson 73). During their operation, hydrogen fuel is injected into the anode side, while oxygen, usually from the air, is pumped to the cathode. The hydrogen molecule disassociates, and the proton passes through the electrolyte to join the oxygen, while the electron from the hydrogen molecule travels in an outside circuit, producing electrical current (Brus and Hotek 22). Because of the fact that fuel cells have no moving parts, they are much more efficient than conventional internal combustion engines, which makes them a great investment for the future of the planets energy. In addition, there are multiple types of fuel cells, each with their own sets of merits and each able to be used a different way in todays energy economy. Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) are the most prevalent type of fuel cell today. They deliver a high power density and a low weight to volume ratio (Sorensen 81). Because of this, and their abnormally low operating temperature of 80Â ° Celsius, PEMFCs are ideal for use in cars, buses, and other small scale portable applications. Also, the low operating temperature of PEMFCs allow for less wear and tear on the electrolyte, thereby reducing maintenance costs (Hordeski 145). Although PEMFCs have excellent performance characteristics in vehicles, they do not produce the amount of power necessary for large scale operations, like power plants. Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs) are the answer to this problem. MCFCs have a higher operating temperature, around 800Â ° Celsius, which allows them to create a much higher amount of energy per unit of fuel. This also makes them difficult to use in portable applications (Kandlikar). In addition, MCFCs can reach efficiencies of up to seventy percent if cogeneration, the capturing of waste heat, is used. This is much higher than the twenty five to thirty five percent efficiencies of coal fired power plants (Brus and Hotek). Because of the large amount of energy produced in MCFCs, their excellent efficiency, and their possible cogeneration applications, they are much better suited for stationary applications, such as power plants, than are fossil fuels. Currently, the main reasons that hydrogen fuel cells are not in more widespread use is the lack of production, delivery, and storage infrastructure. Almost all of the energy infrastructure in the United States, and indeed the world, is geared toward fossil fuels (Busby). With a forward looking investment, the current fossil fuel infrastructure can easily be converted to hydrogen. The first step in creating a reliable hydrogen infrastructure is to invest in renewable hydrogen production methods. Renewable production methods include wind, solar, and hydroelectric. All of these methods produce energy, which leads to the eventual electrolyzing or splitting of water to produce both hydrogen, which is used in fuel cells, and oxygen, which can be captured as a useful byproduct (Hydrogen Energy). One of the main reasons experts such as Peter Hoffmann argue for a more widespread use of hydrogen fuel cells is because they have the possibility to become a zero emission fuel source. Hoffmann recognizes that a future hydrogen economy would consist of hydrogen being produced from clean, primary sources of energy. (8-9). Although the conversion of the existing fossil fuel based infrastructure would cost billions of dollars, citizens of the United States must evaluate whether the continued damage to the planet is worth the cost of switching to a renewable hydrogen based infr astructure. Before switching to a hydrogen based economy, one of the problems that must be solved is hydrogen storage. Hydrogen is an excellent energy storage medium, with energies in the range of 142 MJ kg-1 per unit of mass, but it has a low density (Broom 5). This produces the above mentioned storage problem, because although fossil fuels have a much lower energy content per unit of mass, 47 MJ kg-1, they are a liquid at ambient temperatures, which gives them a much higher density (Farndon). How can the high energy hydrogen be stored in such a way that it gives off the greatest amount of energy per unit of volume, rather than per unit of mass? Multiple options are available, the first of which is storing hydrogen as a compressed gas. Compressing hydrogen results in acceptable pressures, which are around 70 MPa per liter (Broom 5). Compressed hydrogen can also be transferred from dispenser to car in much the same way as gasoline. This makes it both easier and less costly to modify the current gasoline based infrastructure to accommodate hydrogen, although more money is needed to begin to facilitate the transition. The second option for hydrogen storage in the future would be as a complex solid metal hydride. These metal hydrides are transition metals, chiefly lanthanum, which soak up hydrogen like a sponge and then release it when given small amounts of energy (Sorensen). An advantage of these hydrides is that they can store hydrogen at densities higher than compressed hydrogen and gasoline, therefore providing more energy per unit of volume, which allows for smaller storage tanks on vehicles and other portable applications (Ogden). This allows for smaller cars, cell phones, and even power plants. Although the technology of complex metal hydrides is only just beginning to become available, it has great potential for a future hydrogen storage source and now only needs investments to make it become a reality. The only remaining infrastructure necessity for a future hydrogen based economy is a hydrogen delivery system that effectively moves hydrogen from its production source to its destination quickly and efficiently. Fortunately, because of the recent natural gas boom in the United States, this problem may have solved itself. Natural gas and hydrogen are similar: both are a gas at room temperature, both have similar densities, and both can be transported in vehicles and pipelines (Backus 6). Because of their similar properties, it is possible to modify the existing natural gas transportation network to transport hydrogen in place of natural gas. This would result in the quick and easy movement of hydrogen from its production source to its final destination, whether it be a fuel pump, a power plant, or even a cell phone charger (Potera). However, additional investments are needed to convert the natural gas network to hydrogen. One of the most overlooked advantages of a hydrogen based economy are the diverse uses for fuel cells. Commonly thought that their only applications would be in vehicles, fuel cells can actually be used for both small and large scale power generation as well as in vehicles. The most promising frontier is probably large scale power generation. As noted before, fuel cells produce electricity, heat, and water as byproducts (Hoffmann 6). Both forms of energy, the heat and the electricity, can be used to generate power on an industrial scale, making fuel cells far more efficient than fossil fuels (6). Also, hydrogen fuel cells have a possibility fossil fuels never had. They can be used for large scale localized power generation to power homes and neighborhoods. This reduces energy loss that takes place with power plants (153). The size and cogeneration ability of fuel cells makes them a great candidate for the future of the centralized power grid. Another application for fuel cells is in the portable electronics field. Because they produce direct current, fuel cells can be used to power virtually anything that batteries are able to power (Potera). Currently, some companies, like Jadoo Power, are marketing small scale consumer electronics that are fueled solely by hydrogen fuel cells. The fuel cells in these electronics are not only smaller than most batteries, but they also deliver more power for a longer period of time (Hoffmann 154). Because of their size and longevity, the military is beginning to take notice of the potential applications for fuel cells in the armed forces. The military is in need of smaller and lighter power sources for portable devices, and Jadoos technology ideally suits them, says Bob Unger, program manager at Kuchera Defense Systems (qtd. in Potera). Although the prospective applications for portable hydrogen fuel cells are only beginning to emerge, the industry is already in need of investments to kic k-start the development of hydrogen fuel consumer electronics. While both the portable and the stationary applications of hydrogen fuel cells are still emerging markets, the hydrogen fuel cell vehicle is not. Fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) have been under development since the 1970s, with the main goal of making them cost effective. Currently, approximately 10,000 fuel cell vehicles are on the road worldwide, with the eventual goal of increasing that number to around 500,000 by 2025 (Peter Hoffmann Responds). Advancements in technologies such as complex metal hydrides have reduced the size, cost, and weight of FCVs. It is estimated that if mass produced, hydrogen fuel cell vehicles would cost between 20,000 and 50,000 dollars, which is comparable with the cost of current vehicles (Ogden). Also, FCVs have driving ranges from 300 to 400 miles and refueling times of five minutes or less, which is also comparable with those of the current gasoline powered cars (Brown). So the question now becomes, why are there not more FCVs on the road right now? The an swer to this is the lack of infrastructure, mainly refueling stations. If more investments are made in a hydrogen based economy and its infrastructure, then the possibilities for growth are limitless. Although there are numerous advantages of a hydrogen economy, it is possibly easier to make an argument against the continued use of a fossil fuel based energy economy. Fossil fuels are a polluting, climate-warming, and non-renewable source of energy (Dawson and Spannagle 17). During their combustion, fossil fuels release greenhouse gasses like carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, and sulphur dioxide. In addition to being extreme irritants for people with breathing difficulties, these compounds also cause the acidification of water, often resulting in acid rain, and the death of many organisms that survive in coral reefs (18). The emission of the above compounds also causes a severe depletion in the ozone layer, the high altitude barrier over the earth that protects its inhabitants from the harmful ultraviolet radiation of the sun (17). Because of the amount of harmful pollutants emitted into the atmosphere by fossil fuels, their use should be discontinued in favor of hydrogen fuel cell s. Although the amount of pollutants that fossil fuels emit is astounding, there are other disadvantages of their use. Climate change, which has only part of the international agenda since the 1970s, has continued to gain importance, especially in the wake of natural disasters like hurricanes Katrina, Isaac, and most recently, Sandy (Dawson and Spannagle 3). These natural disasters have also drawn attention to some of the effects of climate change, like rising sea levels and changing planetary climate patterns. There is significant evidence that supports the conclusion that humans, through the combustion of fossil fuels, are warming the atmosphere of the earth, roughly 1.4Â ° F so far. Although that number may seem insubstantial, over the next 100 years, the earths temperature is expected to rise anywhere from 5Â ° F to 14Â ° F if emissions of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide continue at their current rates (Climate Change Basics). For that reason, investments in renewable resource s, such as hydrogen fuel cells, are needed. The final argument against fossil fuels is their non-renewability. Unlike hydrogen, fossil fuels cannot be replenished, and their reserves are currently being depleted. At present, there are an estimated 1.3 trillion barrels of oil left in the world. This is expected to last for no more than forty years. (Dawson and Spannagle 7). Fossil fuels are merely a short fix to the long term energy problem facing the planet. As John and ÇiÄÅ ¸dem Sheffield so eloquently put it, a coherent energy strategy is required, addressing both energy supply and demand, taking account of the whole energy life cycle (1). Fossil fuels are not the solution that the planet needs for its energy crisis. In addition to the numerous disadvantages of fossil fuels, there are many advantages to a completely hydrogen based economy. The first of these is complete energy security and independence. Because hydrogen can be produced from such a wide variety of sources, there is no possibility that one single country, like Saudi Arabia, would control a monopoly on its production (Hoffmann 8). Any country where the sun shines, the wind blows, and there is water can produce enough hydrogen to satisfy its energy needs. If the United States completely switched to a hydrogen fuel based economy, there would be no need to import oil, coal, or natural gas from other countries (Sheffield and Sheffield 7). However, before that transition can come about, more investments are needed in hydrogen fuel cells. Yet another major advantage of hydrogen fuel cells as a future energy source is the lack of emissions. As mentioned previously, hydrogen fuel cells produce only water as their emissions, which is not a greenhouse gas (Benefits). Because of this, water would have no effect on the climate. This is possibly the greatest advantage of hydrogen fuel cells. A fuel cell running on hydrogen emits little to no pollutants over the course of the chemical process (Benefits). Based on data gathered by the United States department of energy, a stationary fuel cell power plant emits less than half an ounce of pollution per 1,000 Kw/h of produced electricity, while fossil fuels create around twenty five pounds of greenhouse gasses and pollutants for the equivalent quantity of produced electricity (Sperling and Cameron 27). Emissions of pollutants from fuel cells are so small that some places in the United States have allowed fuel cells to be exempt from air quality controls (Benefits). Because of the ir low emissions, hydrogen fuel cells should be used in place of fossil fuels in a future energy economy. The final main advantage of hydrogen fuel cells is their excellent efficiency when compared with fossil fuels. Because fuel cells create energy using an electrochemical process and do not combust fuel, they are essentially have greater efficiencies than combustion engines (Brus and Hotek 23). Fuel cell systems today achieve forty to fifty percent fuel to electricity efficiency using only the electricity produced from the electrochemical reaction as power. If cogeneration is used, a fuel cells efficiency can be dramatically increased to between eighty five and ninety percent. Cogeneration can even help reduce a buildings heating costs in the winter by around thirty percent (Benefits). Even fuel cell vehicles are between two and three times more efficient than regular fossil fuel vehicles (Hoffmann 37). Because of their incredible efficiencies when compared with fossil fuel combustion sources, hydrogen fuel cells deserve the money and subsidies that governments currently give to fossil fuel companies. Although hydrogen fuel cells have large amounts of advantages, there is one main disadvantage: cost. The current price for 1kg of hydrogen, the energy equivalent of one gallon of gasoline, is around twelve dollars (Hydrogen Energy). Most citizens of the United States are used to paying three to four dollars for a gallon of gas, which is much less expensive than hydrogen. However, the price of gas fails to take into account the environmental damage associated with fossil fuels. If factored into the price, one gallon of gasoline costs between ten and eleven dollars (Hoffmann 64). Although the initial price of hydrogen may seem high when compared with gasoline, when the environmental damage is taken into account, hydrogen is actually less expensive than gasoline. Since hydrogen fuel cells emit no harmful pollutants, have efficiencies greater than current fossil fuel sources, and can create a diversified energy economy, they need more investments. Planet earth is facing an energy crisis. The human race must grow, develop, and move past old and inefficient ways of generating energy and into a future where clean and efficient hydrogen fuel cells generate energy for eons to come. If this transition into a hydrogen economy can be made, then the human race has utilized an energy source that can power the earth for thousands more years. If not, then the human race may face a bleak future without one of the main essentials for human existence: energy.

Cyber Studies Essay -- Technology Media Technological Papers

Cyber Studies This essay will argue that the influence of new technologies are changing the relationship between the media and their audiences. This concept will be explored by examining the current media communication model and how new technologies influence it’s future. Future media possibilities are raised and the implications of them for the relative industries are discussed. This essay is molded around the idea that these new technologies are giving audiences the power to shape the future of media and it’s capabilities. The premise being discussed involves many participants and factors as it is becoming increasingly difficult to separate them due to technological and communication convergence. Basically this essay will demonstrate how new technologies are allowing consumers to have more control over where, when and how they receive information. Communication and media are one and the same. As media is defined as ‘means of communication to the public; newspapers, TV and radio collectively, (Penguin, 1979). Media refers to the medium by which communication to a particular audience takes place. Traditionally information was communicated through these mediums via a system of centralized dissemination meaning from one source (or relatively few) to many receivers. This was the First (electronic) Media Age and it was due to technological advancements of the time that formed this communication model and introduced the concept of mass media. This remains the model dominating our societies communication today. However technological developments such as the internet and mobile phones are challenging this centralized communication system heralding in a Second Media Age characterized by distributed systems of... ...iously influenced by the advancements and integration of new technologies. Works Cited: American Press Institute. (2004). Retrieved September 13, 2004, from http://www.american pressinstitute.org/content/4646.cfm Corporate Influence in the Media, media and advertising. (2004). Retrieved September 13, 2004, from http://www.globalissues.org/HumanRights/Media/Corporations/Ads.asp Garmonsway, G.N. (1979). The Penguin Modern English Dictionary. England: Penguin Books. Media Futures Archive. (2004). Retrieved September 13, 2004, from http://www.hfac.uh.edu/MediaFutures/home.html Media Magazines Forecast 2005. (2004). Retrieved September 13, 2004, from http:www.mediapost.com/forecast2005/forecast2004temp.cfm?c=overview The Media Centre at the American Press Institute. (2004). Retrieved September 13, 2004, from http://www.mediacentre.org/

Dreaming Time Essay

When’s the last time you dreamed? In fact, the last time sleep occurred is the correct answer. Most people believe that they don’t dream, only because these individuals can’t recall dreaming as an event. In J. Allan Hobson’s book, Dreaming, it explores how dreaming is influenced and how it affects the individual, how dreaming is associated with REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep and the importance of it, and also why sleep is so essential for human beings and other mammals to experience. Sleep is correlated with dreaming, making dreaming a phenomenon essential to living. Dreaming is an interesting subject, and may also seem interesting while happening; though many don’t remember the events within them. What is dreaming, someone might ask? Dreaming is basically the brain’s activation throughout the sleep cycle. This was not discovered from looking at the content of the dream, like many of us look forward to, such as the images and scenarios our mind creates; but rather a more formalistic approach on the study of dreams. By using more scientific methods to analyze and define the dreaming state, research has improved drastically over several years, however, it failed to become an actual science. â€Å"My consciousness is as clear as a bell. In fact, I see–and feel–everything in this dream with a surreal intensity†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Hobson 25.) In this quote given by the author, he was describing how he had felt during the dream he shared within the text. People who are interested in the content of dreams should read this book, as Hobson gives away a few logs in his own dreaming journal. Hobson mentioned how he had felt as if imagining the dream were actually happening because it seemed so vividly clear. In fact, so clear it seemed like reality. His dream was about a red car smashing into a wall, and then finding himself with his son’s bloodied knees and all in a locker room. He associated this vision with his son previously being in a car accident, where indeed the car was red, and his son did infact have a damaged leg. Events that happened prior to the dream may affect the content within the sleeping hallucination. Night terrors or nightmares may also have this same effect on the dreamer. These kind of dreaming states can be associated with traumatic events in ones life. This may cause an effect on the individual to get caught up in this unpleasant scenario and result in awakening. Dreams may also be affected through external interference. In a sleep lab, using certain smells, scientists jump started the patients to experience a specific smell in the dreaming state. There are many factors that can affect the dreaming state an individual experiences. The factors that affect the dreaming state of an individual are also internally significant. â€Å"Not that dreaming occurs exclusively in REM sleep. It doesn’t. REM sleep just happens to provide the most ideal condition for its occurrence.† (Hobson 38.) Through this quote provided by Hobson, he is saying that through Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep, dreaming is most ideal and this is a common time for dreaming to occur. If someone wants to learn about this certain subject of dreaming, they should consider read the content of this book. Dreaming is important such as REM sleep is to daily function, because both are essentially linked to each other. REM sleep takes place at about 90 minute intervals throughout a sleep cycle, taking up to two hours per night. This kind of deep sleep is essential as it is necessary for development. It is known that at infancy an individual needs much more REM sleep rather than in adults. This makes sense because at this young of age is when the most development occurs. With this statement, it does not mean that as aging occurs that REM sleep isn’t necessary because throughout life development is an ongoing process. As early as at 30 weeks gestation does the fetus develop the ability of REM sleep. Although dreaming is associated mainly with this specific type of sleep, does not say whether fetuses, infants, or even animals dream as it can only be confirmed vocally by the individual. It is only assumed through body movements and facial expressions, such as when a baby frowns or a dog may run in their sleep for example, that dreaming is an occurring event. A study also found that in children, REM sleep happened right away in the sleep cycle of a child, but the same not true for adults. Although dreaming is commonly taken for the misconception that one does not dream entirely altogether, it is at the fault of no recall whatsoever. In sleep lab studies, when one is woken at the time that REM sleep happens to be occurring, it is more likely for the participant to remember their dream; linking mainly REM sleep to the state of dreaming, rather than NREM sleep or right before awakening. Now that it is safe to say that dreaming is associated with REM sleep, can we confront the question of why it’s so important to be in that deep state of sleeping. As mentioned before, REM sleep is essential to development in an individual. â€Å"To read, to write, to listen, and to tell, I need a good night’s sleep. And, recognizing that fact, I try my best to get it.† (Hobson 79.) Even represented in this quote from Hobson does he express the importance of sleep. A lot of people don’t realize the beneficial aspects of a good nights rest, and people should read this book as to gain insight about it. REM sleep helps regulates thermoregulation, which is a necessity for the the body in order to survive. REM sleep also stores important memories and content, throws away old stuff, makes room for the new stuff, and keeps us from going crazy in reality by doing so in our dreams. In many studies, analysis shows the link between lack of REM sleep and daily performa nce. In a rat study, they deprived rats of their REM sleep, results showing that their thermoregulation was off balance and they hurdled to the warmest corner of their living areas. They also eventually died off from infection due to the lack of their ability to properly function. In other tests, they deprived humans of their REM sleep as well and there are reports of individuals going insane after 72 hours straight because they were denied the ability to go crazy, as you could say, in a dreaming state. After so long without this sleep may an individual start to hallucinate. In other studies, people were put to test by recording their performance on a game. When they had first played it they had all improved on it, but after going to sleep, which only half of them got REM sleep, the half that didn’t get it tended not to improve or decrease in skill, while the half that got a good nights rest improved in skill. These studies all show that REM sleep is obviously credited on daily performance and overall health necessary for survival. So the question is, how much sleep is considered adequate enough? That has many factors on it’s own, from climate, social customs, and even by an individuals personal experience. No amount of sleep is considered not to be normal as it varies from person to person. There are short sleepers (4-6 hours) and both long sleepers (8-10 hours). Time for sleep fluctuates, such as weight does, and some can go on very little sleep and function very well, while others go on lots of sleep while still not yet at their performance peak. The body and mind are both miraculous systems, and can compensate very well for themselves, but without adequate time spent sleeping, an individual may not function as well as they would normally refreshed. So many people take sleep for granted, as do so many others go throughout life not recalling their dreams, and even some living in a nightmare all their own, waking in terror. The science of sleep has come a long way since it was first discovered, and it is sure to develop substantially more over the course of time. Knowing what dreaming is, how it is affected and how it affects a single person, how dreaming relates to REM sleeping, and knowing the importance of dreaming to an individual mammal, are we then allowed to incorporate that knowledge into one’s own life. A way to apply this information to my own life may be figuring how much sleep is adequate for myself each night in order to function to the best of my ability, and to remember subject and test material at a more favorable level. This application appears satisfactory to myself as it may seem to many other individuals, taking the study of this subject matter not just into consideration, but also appreciation. Works Cited Hobson, J. Allan. Dreaming: An introduction to the science of sleep. New York: Oxford UP, 2002. Print.

Support for Imperialism Declined From 1880-1902

In the late 19th Century, following on from the ‘Scramble for Africa', Britain continued the aim of expanding her empire through the process of imperialism from the period 1880 to 1902. ‘New imperialism’ is an expression used to demote a change in attitudes to empire in the last quarter of the 19th century. However imperialism is said to mean ’the wish to maintain the unity and increase the strength of an empire which contains within its limits various more on less independent states.’The reason for new imperialism was to reinforce the idea of a white self government; as well as to increase Britain’s empire, by 1900 Britain had taken control over 1/5 of the world’s land. However, it has to be noted that there were significant fluctuations in popularity during this period such as after the outbreak of the Second Boer War. The rapid expansion or empire came of a time when the electorate had been significantly widened. It also came at the t ime of the revolution of the popular press. Now printing techniques made newspapers, magazines and books cheaper and more commonly available.90% of the population are illiterate. Since many newspaper owners were staunch imperialists, many newspapers focused on imperial issues, as so many of the population was illiterate it could be argued that the idea of imperialism was mostly for those of the upper and middle classes; this is backed up by the fact that the working class resented the concept of imperialism as it was seen as a distraction from their work and wages. Support was particularly strong in upper-class public elite groups, such as the landed aristocracy, and among middle-class businessmen.There is, however, a debate about the extent to which the mass of the working class supported imperial ideology. Teaching the values of the empire was not continued. Imperial lessons were taught in the schoolroom, pupils would learn about the supremacy of the royal navy, the name of the co lonies and trade routes, schoolboys stressed patriotic themes. Frowning literacy amongst the young ensured that children especially boys – war the targets of a large range of magazines and novels produced in the 1890s and early 1900s.Many of the stories produced during  this period were set in distant parts of the British empire and were designed both to excite the imagination and to reinforce a sense of patriotism and duty, stories like this appeared in magazines such as Boys Own Paper, Chums, Pluck and Union Jack. It was during the 1880s that youth organisations with military style structures and patriotic, imperialistic values were first set up (boys brigade was set up in Glasgow 1883). One of the most popular forms of entertainment in the late Victorian and Edwardian period way the shows put on by music halls.These shows were designed to appeal to a predominantly the middle/upper class audience and many had a strong imperialistic and patriotic theme (the term jingoism, meaning ‘extreme patriotism’ came from a music hall song). British people living in the late 19th century were subjected to many indirect forms of indoctrination. Towns were full of billboards advertising products and services, which often used imperial images; thus increasing the appeal for the imperial message.Some of the most enthusiastic of such working-class demonstrations came during the Boer War of 1899-1902, this method of protest was known as mafficking. When news of the relief or Mafeking reached Britain in May 1900, there were huge demonstrations throughout the country. Some historians have argued against the view that the mass of the working class was fervent imperialists. Price, for example, many members of the working class volunteered to fight in the Boer war in an effort to escape poverty rather than because they supported the cause.Similarly, Peeling, argues that, just because music hall songs were jingoistic, it does not mean the audience fully support ed the views expressed as the presence of a product does not presume its acceptance. For some liberals there was the moral issue of using force to spread British international power. It was not until the Boer war the anti-imperialism gained a significant political voice. The Boer war was a turning point regarding support for imperialism as, it was the first time the brutality of Britain had been seen so vividly.Families were herded into concentration camps and approximately 110,000 were killed; from this we can see that the support for imperialism changed due to the impact it had on other people which ultimately led to a mass of loss support by the British public and politicians. From about 1880, Britain adopted a more aggressive form of imperialism and there was extensive support for this amongst and their extensive support for this amongst the British. Support was particularly strong within the conservative party and amongst the working classes.The working class was less easily co nvinced of the benefits of patriotism. The empire may have provided some employment but it did not lead to high pay and increasing prosperity. Economic issues were particularly significant in shaping enthusiasm for imperialism. Many elements of Chamberlain’s vision of a great global empire with Britain at the centre, they were taken up through the media and popular entertainments central to his thinking was the notion that Britain was helping the uncivilised and racially inferior native people this image appealed to the majority of people in Britain.In 1880 Gladstone became Prime minister; after winning the election in 1879 and therefore replacing Disraeli, the conservative. As Gladstone travelled throughout England highlighting his policies to the public, it is evident that his ambitions were that to be supported by the public. Furthermore we must recognise that Gladstone was one of the first politicians who saw the importance of speaking to the electorate;this was not only because times were changing but also because a higher percentage of the population were getting the vote as a result of the reform acts.An example of this would be the 1832 act which enabled women to vote. The 1900 general election, (Khaki) resulted in a conservative victory and a continuance of conservative rule. It appeared as I popular support lay with the government that had taken Britain into a war against the Boers. But there was considerable media coverage of the brutality of the war. The extensive international opposition to Britain’s methods weakened support for imperialism at home. Many working-class men volunteered for military service to escape poverty not because they wanted to show their patriotism.Also, several politicians mainly from the left did not agree with the concept of imperialism as to them it was just the preservation of capitalists. In conclusion, although there was a rapid increase in the support for imperialism due to the several sources such as bo oks, schools and entertainment in facilities such as music halls, from 1880-1902 the policy’s impression on the public began to change due to other factors such as because of the Boer war’s brutality as well as because of capitalists at the time who were seen as draining the countries resources.

Infantile Amenisia essays

Infantile Amenisia essays Our brains are constantly at work processing and retrieving information. However, we become frustrated when we cannot readily retrieve information that we have stored in our brains. The inability to remember can occur for a number of reasons that range from simple forgetting to phenomena like Infantile Amnesia. Infantile Amnesia is described as an adults inability to remember events before the age of two or three. This phenomena has proven difficult to test because your memory is in a constant state of reconstruction, (Rupp, 1998, p. 171). That is your memories are influenced by past events, and current perceptions about yourself. Therefore, you may remember events only in a way that it is congruent with your current perceptions of yourself, and current relationships. Rupp illustrated this: Grown children who clash with their parents may find memories of childhood plastered over with new impressions the past becomes gloomier and more dismal; recollections of past injustices loom large. (Rupp, 1998, p.172) Hindsight bias is also a factor in both adult and childhood memories. Hindsight bias occurs when our memory of how certain we were about the accuracy of an event is altered. If an event is recounted that is similar to the memory that we have we tend to become more confident remembering events in a much more positive light. If our memory is found to be false, we quickly remember ourselves as being cautiously doubtful about the event in the first place. Therefore, it is clear that our memories are quite susceptible to error. Sigmund Freud, father of the psychoanalytic school of thought had a different interpretation. Freud contended that it was necessary to repress early childhood memories. This necessity stemmed out of the need to repress anxiety-producing sexual and aggressive memories related to a childs parent or parents. Freud thought that repression of these memories was essen ...

Doryphoros by Polykleitos essays

Doryphoros by Polykleitos essays Sculptors of the Early and High Classical Grecian periods in art strived for perfection in creating the human form. They combined such features such as regular facial features, smooth skin, and particular body portions into an ideal of perfect beauty. Much as modern day advertisement has idealized the slender model as the new perfect female form. One such artist of the time was named Polykleitos of Argos. He was a well-known sculptor and art theorist. His aim in sculpting was to produce the perfect human figure using a mathematical equation to sculpt the body parts. It is believed that he used a basic unit ratio to measure the rest of the body parts. He set down his theory on the human for in a treatise known as The Canon and created a larger than life size sculpture he named Doryphoros and is now called The Spear Bearer. Unfortunately nobody knows exactly what that unit of measurement was because neither his treatise nor his statue survived the centuries. The Spear Bearer was created out of bronze, a popular medium at the time because of the ability to show more movement in bronze than in marble, which was the traditional medium. The Spear Bearer was one of the earliest statues to be show in the fully developed contraposto position. Earlier Greek artisans came up with the idea of contraposto. This is where all the weight of the figure in question appears to put all its weight onto one leg. This technique makes Doryphoros appear to be relaxed but a certain tension is there and he is ready to spring into action at a moments notice. Polykleitos combined this with a system called chiastic balance or cross balance where there is an active-passive sense of balance. The right arm of The Spear Bearer is relaxed and languid at his side while the left has tension from holding the spear over his shoulder. His right leg the opposite of the right arm and tensed t ...